First Year: Semester I

First Year: Semester II

Second Year: Semester I

Second Year: Semester II

Third Year: Semester I

Third Year: Semester II

Fourth Year: Semester I

Fourth Year: Semester II

Concept: Definition of Biotechnology, history and multidisciplinary nature of Biotechnology, applications of Biotechnology, Biotechnology and developing countries, commercialisation of Biotechnology in a developing country.

Recombinant DNA technology: Concepts of Recombinant DNA technology, biological tools of Recombinant DNA technology, modification of gene, methods of gene transfer, transgenic organisms.

Biotechnology in Medicine: Introduction, production of human peptide hormones, insulines, somatotropin, somatostatin, human interferon, different types of vaccines, commercial chemicals, regulation of proteins, blood products, antibiotics and vaccines.

Biotechnology in Food: Introduction, dairy products, fish and meat products, food enzymes, sweeteners, bakery products, food wastes, microbial products, oriental fermented foods, drinks, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.

Biotechnology in Plant and Agriculture: Impact of Biotechnology in Agriculture, list of biotechnological products produced from plant and agricultural crops and their uses, biotechnological methods used in crop production, genetic manipulation of plant, biofertilizer, biopesticide, biocontrol of weeds, plant tissue culture its application.

Biotechnology in Animal Production: Animal wealth, products from animal, biotechnological methods used in animal production, genetic manipulation of animal, animal cell culture, pharmaceuticals from transgenic animals, blood substitutes from transgenic animals.

Enzyme Technology: Definition of enzyme, enzymology and enzyme technology, nature of the enzymes, applications of enzymes, technology of enzyme production, immobilization of enzymes.

Biological Fuel Generation: Photosynthesis- ultimate energy resources, sources of biomass, ethanol from biomass, methane from biomass, biogas production.

Biotechnology and Environment: Sources of environmental pollution, uses of commercial blends of microorganism and enzymes in pollution control. Biotechnological approaches in waste treatment.

Biosafety and Biotechnology: Concepts of bio safety, composition function of national and institutional bio safety committee, safety level organisms, problems of biologically active agents, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), regulations of bio safety level.

Bioinformatics: Concepts of bioinformatics, scope, importance and application of bioinformatics, methods and process of bioinformatics.

1. Bilgrami and Pandey. 1990. Introduction to Biotechnology. CBS Publishers. India.

2. Bullock, J. and Uritiansen, B. 1995. Basic Biotechnology. Academic Press, UK.

3. Dubey, R. C. 1995. Introduction to Biotechnology. S. Chand and Co. Pvt. Ltd. India.

4. Jack, G. Chirikjian. 1995. Biotechnology: Theory and Techniques. Volume I . Jones and

Bartlett publisher, Boston, London, Singapore.

5. Natesh, S. 1993. Biotechnology in Agriculture. Oxford & IBM Pvt. Ltd. India.

6. Rao, N. S. S. 1996. Biofertilizer in Agriculture and Forestry. Oxford & IBM Pvt. Ltd. India.

7. Smith, J. E. 1988. Biotechnology. Edward Arnold Pub. NY, UK

 

Plant anatomy: Definition, ultra structure of cell, meristemetic tissue- definition, types, structure, characteristics, function of tissue, tissue system, differentiation of tissues, normal secondary growth of stems and roots, primary structure of stem, root and leaf, root-stem transition, importance of studying tissue and tissue system in Biotechnology.

Economic botany: Introduction and scope of economic botany, scientific name, local name, useful parts and economic importance of medicinal, cereals, fibres, oils, fruits, rubber, beverage, sugar, fodder, pulse, timber and narcotic yielding plants, cultivation and processing of tea and rubber plants. Commercially and Biotechnologically important aquatic plants and sea weeds and their uses.

Plant diseases: Definition, causative agents, symptom, importance and control measures of viral, bacterial and fungal diseases of rice, wheat, sugarcane, jute, pulses, potato, tomato and banana.

Type study of animals: Type study of the following with their systematic position, habitat, distribution, external morphology, organ system, mode of life, development and special reference to biotechnological significance: Protozoa, Helminth (Fasciola hepatica, Ascaris sp.), Arthropoda (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), Mollusca (Lamellidens sp.), Pisces (Labeo rohita ), aves and Mammalia.

Anatomy of higher Animal: Comparative anatomy of higher animals.

Economic study of animals: Apiculture, sericulture, poultry and dairy farming.

Major diseases of animals: Major diseases of poultry birds, dairy animals and human.

1. Hairston, N. G. 1994. Vertibrate Zoology- An Experimental Field approach. CUP.

2. Jardan, E. I. and Verma, P. S. Invertibrate Zoology. S. Chand and Com. Ltd. New Dilhi.

3. Jardan, E. I. and Verma, P. S. Chordate Zoology. S. Chand and Com. Ltd. New Dilhi.

4. Parker, T. J. and Haswell, W. A. 1990. A Text Book of Zoology. Vol. I and II. Low Price Publication India.

5. Storer, T. I. General Zoology. Tata – Megraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd. India.

6. Young, J. 1981. Life of Vertebrate. OUP, USA.

7. Frost ,S.W., Economic Zoology.

8. Srivastava , P.D. Economic Zoology.

 

Practical works based on BTC 122 and 123.

Introduction: Definition of microorganism and microbiology; Place of microorganisms in the living world; A brief history of the development of microbiology – early observation of microorganisms, debate over spontaneous generation, germ theory of disease, vaccination and discovery of antibiotics; Modern developments in microbiology; Scope of microbiology.

Classification of microorganisms: Salient features of major types of microorganisms – bacteria, archaebacteria, rickettsia, mycoplasma, actinomycetes, fungi, algae, protozoa, virus, viroids, prions; Classification based on temperature, pH, oxygen, salinity, nutrients.

Bacteria: Morphology; Structure - Capsule, flagella, pili, cell-wall, cytoplasmic membrane, inclusion bodies, ribosome, pigments and endospore; Classification; Multiplication; Recombination; Economic importance.

Cultivation and Growth of microorganisms: Nutritional and physical requirements for growth; Culture medium – simple, defined, complex , selective, differential and enrichment media; Culture preservation and management; Batch and continuous culture; Growth equation; growth curve; Measurement of growth; Effect of anti microbial agent and control of microbial growth.

Microbial ecolology: Ecology and ecosystem; Biotic and abiotic factors; Microorganisms in soil, air and water; Microbial interaction – neutralism, synergism, mutualism, commensalism, antagonism, parasitism and predation.

Basic laboratory techniques: Morphological, cultural, biochemical, serological and molecular techniques for the identification of microbial cells.

Books Recommended:

1. Biology of Microorganisms- T.D. Brock et al.

2. Microbial Ecology; Fundamental and applications-Atlas R M and Bartha R.

3. Microbiology: an introduction- G.JTortora,Funke &Case

4 Microbiology: International edition- M.J Pelczar, E.C.S.Chan and N.R krieg

5. Jawetz E. J. et al. Review of medical microbiology:

 

Introduction: Biochemistry, its definition and scopes, relation between biochemistry with biology, medicine and agriculture, concept of life and living processes, the identifying characteristics of a living matter.

i) Carbohydrates: Occurrence, nomenclature, biological importance, chemical characteristics, and classification of carbohydrates. monosaccharides and disaccharides: structure, properties, characteristic tests, amino sugars and glycosides. polysaccharides: occurrence, compositions, structure and properties of starch, glycogen, cellulose, other polysaccharides of biological interest, their chemical tests and biological importance, analysis of carbohydrates.

ii). Lipids: Definition, classification and biological importance.

iii). Amino acids, peptides and proteins: Amino acids: definition, source, classification and structure of naturally occurring amino acids and their physical, chemical and optical properties, essential and non-essential amino acids, concept of residue, peptide bonds, oligopeptide and polypeptide, identification of N-terminal and C-terminal residue of a peptide, synthesis of peptides. Proteins: definition, classification and biological importance.

iv). Nucleic acid: General structure of nucleosides and nucleotides, chemistry of DNA, base pair rule, double helical structure, chemistry of RNA, types and functions of RNA, physiochemical properties, denaturation and renaturation of nucleic acids.

v) Vitamins and Hormones: Definition, classification, their functions and

importance in Biochemistry.

Books Recommended:

1. Lehninger, Albert, L., Nelson David, L., Cox, Michael, M., Principles of Biochemistry, 1^st Indian Edition, 1993. CBS Publisher’s and Distibutors.

2. Strayer, Lubert, 1988. Biochemistry, 3^rd Edition, Q. H. Freeman and company, NewYork.

3. Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes P. A. Rodwell, V. W. 1988. Harper’s Biochemistry. 22^nd edition, Prentice Hall International.

4. Conn, E. E., Stumpt, P. K., 1994, Outlines of Biochemistry, 4^th Edition, Wiley Eastem Limited, new age International Limited.

5. A. C. Dev, Fundamentals of Biochemistry.

 

1. Estimation of ascorbic acid content of biological samples.

2. Determination of lactose content of milk.

3. Estimation of glucose from supplied sample.

4. Estimation of cholesterol from supplied sample.

5. Estimation of iodine number of fats and oil.

6. The estimation of iron content of Mohr’s salt by dichromate method.

7. Identification of amino acid by paper chromatography.

8. Estimation of calcium by titration with potassium permanganate.

9. Estimation of protein by Lowry method.

10. Determination of specific rotation of sucrose and estimation of sugar content of solutions with the help of polarimeter

Introduction: Historical background of cell, cell discovery and organelles. Definition and modern concept of cell, protoplasm theory.

Cell types and structure: Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, differences between the two types of cells. Typical structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell and their functions.

Cellular organelles: Major cellular organelles, composition, structure and function. Cell wall membrane, plasma membrane, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, mitochondria, chloroplast, ribosome, lysosome, cytoskeletal structure.

Nucleus and chromosome: Structure of nucleus, morphology and chemistry of chromosome. Special types of chromosome- polytene, lampbrush, sex, iso-chromosomes and diplochromosomes, Karyotypes- Definition, characteristics, variation and significance.

Cell division: Types of cell division, steps of mitosis and meiosis, difference between the two processes, Abnormalities in mitosis and meiosis, causes and significance. Chromosome replication and cell separation (on aspect of cell signaling).

Physiology of cell: Energy, enzymes and metabolism, cellular respiration, cell secretion, cell recreation.

Gametogenesis: Definition, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.

Books Recommended:

1. DeRobertis, E.D.P. and Derobertis.Jr.E.M.F.(1989).Cell and Molecular Biology. 8^th Edition, Info. Med. Ltd. Hong Kong.

2. Smith and Wood (1996).Cell Biology 2^nd edition. Chapman and Hall Co. Ltd. UK.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 128.

Plant life related physico-chemical phenomenon: Inhibition, diffusion, osmosis, osmotic pressure, plasmolysis, colloid state and root pressure.

Water Relation : Mechanism of absorption of water, active and passive absorption, external factors affecting absorption, conduction and translocation.

Loss of Water: Transpiration, type, significance, mechanism of opening and closing of stomata, factors affecting transpiration.

Essential Elements: Source, general function of micro and macro elements in plant growth and development, deficiency symptom.

Mineral Nutrition: Mechanism of mineral salt absorption and translocation.

Photosynthesis: General account and modern concept, pigments in prokaryotes and eucaryotes, light and chemical reactions, photo-phosphorilation, factors affecting photosynthesis, pathways of carbon-di-oxide reduction in C₃, C₄ and CAM plants, source and sink relationship, significance.

Respiration: Respiration of plant and microbes, types, respiratory substances, different pathways, fermentation, efficiency of respiration, production of high energy compound and ATP, photorespioration.

Growth: Definition, basic concepts of growth and development, measurement, vegetative and reproductive growth, phages of growth, factors affecting growth and development, principle and problem of cell differentiation and morphogenesis in plants, senescence, type and causes of senescence.

Growth Regulating Chemicals (Hormones): Definition, occurrence, classification, nature and effect of growth regulating chemicals on plant growth and development with special emphesis on auxin, gibbrellin, cytokinin/ kinin, abscisic acid, ethylene and plant growth reterdants.

Physiology of Flowering: Mechanism of flowering, florigen and its role in flowering, light image and flowering, photoperiodism, vernalization.

Seed: Viability, causes of losses of seed viability, germination of seeds, causes and artificial breaking of dormancy.

Light and Plant Life: Light sensing by plants, photomorphogenesis, phytochrome and blue light photoreceptors, effect of UV light on biological system, significance of biological clocks.

Transport Phenomenon in Plants: Characteristics of transport in xylem and phloem, mechanism of phloem transport.

Books Recommended:

1. Datta, S. C. 1994. Plant Physiology. Wiley Eastern Ltd. New Dilhi.

2. Devlin, M. R. and Witham, H. F. 1986. Plant Physiology. CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.

3. Hess, D. 1975. Plant Psysiology. Springer International Student Edition.

4. Pandey, S. N. and Sinha, B. K. 1990. Plant Physiology. Vikash Pub. House Pvt. Ltd.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 130

Introduction: Historical background of genetics. Modern concept of genetics, Scope and branches, application and importance of genetics in human society, criteria of genetic material transformation experiment. Some important genetics term.

Heredity, Environment and the Continuity of Life: Heredity and variation. Genotype and environmental interaction.

Mendelian Genetics: Experiment of Mendel work. Mendel’s law of segregation and independent assortment.

Exception of Mendelism: Modification of Mendelian ratios.

Multiple Factor Inheritance: Multiple allelism, pleotropism and cytoplasmic inheritance.

Linkage and Crossing Over: Linkage, Crossing over, different kinds of linkage and crossing over and their significance, linkage groups. Factor affecting the strength of linkage, chromosome map.

Sex Determination: Different mechanism of sex determination in plants, animals and its implications.

Chromosomal Abberations: Types of structural and numerical changes of chromosome and mechanisms. Genetical consequences of changing chromosome structure and number.

Mutation: Definition , kinds of mutations mutation rate, Significance of mutation .

Test Cross and Back Cross: Definition, monohybrid and dihybrid cross, and its use.

Eugenics and Euphenics: Eugenics and euthenics, basis of eugenics, need for eugenics,eugenics and human betterments, euphenics.

1. Harlt ,D.L. and E.W.Jones (1998).Genetics :Principles and Analysis .Jones and Bartlett.

2. Sinnot ,E.W. , L.C.Dunn and Dobzhansky. Principles of Genetic .McGraw Hill Co. New York.

3. Cumming , M.R. (1997).Concept of Genetics . Prentice-Hall.

4. Weaver , R.F. and P.W.Hedric(1995).Basic Genetics .Wim. C. brown Publisher .Dubuque , Lowa.

5. Islam ,A.S. Fundamental of Genetics .Vikash Publishing house Pvt. Ltd.

Introduction: Definition, branches of physiology.

Homeostasis: Definition, role of various systems of body in homeostasis mechanism, homeostatic imbalances.

Digestion: Definition, digestion of carbohydrate, protein and lipids with special reference to man.

Circulation: Definition, blood components & function, origin of blood, blood group & Rh factor, blood coagulation, haemoglobin, blood pressure. Anatomical position of heart, heart muscle, origin, conduction & regulation of heart beat, cardiac cycle, physiology of blood circulation, lymph and its function , out line of ECG, ETT, Echocardiogram, pacemaker.

Respiration: Definition & phases of respiration, mechanism & control of respiration, transport of oxygen & carbon dioxide. Excretion: Definition, morphology & function of human kidney, mechanism / physiology of excretion, urine composition & formation, role of the kidney in the regulation of water, salt & acid base balance [osmo-regulation].

Reproduction: Physiology of reproduction.

Muscle contraction / Movement: Classification, structure & function of muscle cells, mechanism of muscle contraction

Co-ordination: Nervous system, Neurons, mechanism of conduction of nerve impulse along axons, neurotransmitter substances, reflex action.

Structure & function of sensory organs, concern with vision, sound perception, taste, and smell & touch receptors.

1 Ganong, W. F., Review of Medical Physiology.

2. Guyton, A. C. and Hall, J.E., Textbook of Medical Physiology

3. Gottschalk, Gerhard,. Bacterial Metabolism.

4. Datta, S. C., Animal Physiology.

5. Malik, C.P.,Animal Physiology.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 221.

3 Hours/Week, 3 Credits

Introduction: Chemistry of nucleic acids, structure, physico-chemical properties, molecular weight determination of nucleic acids, structure and physico-chemical properties of DNA and RNA, hybridisation kinetics, homoduplex, different configuration of cricuform structure.

DNA Replication: Mode of replication, DNA polymerase, mechanism and control of DNA synthesis, protein synthesis, ribosome structure, protein synthesis, initiation, elongation and termination, control of translation in prokaryotes and eucaryotes.

Transcription and Translation: RNA polymerase, mechanism of transcription, reverse transcriptase, regulation of transcription, operon model and RNA spicing, genetic codes, specificity, Redundancy and Wobble hypothesis, gene and protein structure.

Mutation and Repair of DNA: Types of mutation, molecular basis of mutation, in vitro mutagenesis, and site directed mutagenesis, transposable elements, repair mechanism in mutation and side directed mutation.

Regulation of Gene Expression: Gene from different kinds of RNA, RNA polymerase, positive and negative control of gene expression, gene expression of somatic cell hybrids.

Molecular Biology of Organelle: Genomes of the mitochondria and plasmid, interaction with nucleus, duel control of its synthesis.

Dynamic Genome: The dynamic genome, mobile genetic elements in eukaryotes – relevant to plants, studies in maize.

1. Adams, R.L.P., Burden, R.H., Camphel, L.D.P., Smelline,R.M.S.(1981). The Biochemistry of the Nucleic acids. 9^th edition, Campbell and Hall.

2. De Robertis, E.D.P. and De robertis Jr. E.M.E.(1988). Cell and Molecular Biology.8^th edition ,Info-Med.

3. Lehninger, Albert, L., Nelson David, L., Cox, Michael, M., Principles of Biochemistry, 1^st Indian Edition, 1993. CBS Publisher’s and Distibutors.

4. Strayer, Lubert, 1988. Biochemistry, 3^rd Edition, Q. H. Freeman and company, NewYork.

5. Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes P. A. Rodwell, V. W. 1988. Harper’s Biochemistry. 22^nd edition, Prentice Hall International.

6. Conn, E. E., Stumpt, P. K., 1994, Outlines of Biochemistry, 4^th Edition, Wiley Eastem Limited, new age International Limited.

7. A. C. Dev, Fundamentals of Biochemistry.

Detail study about biotechnologically important microorganisms (Characteristics, Cultural properties, Biochemical properties, Genetics, Virulence factors, Products, cultivation, industrial application)

§ Bacteria: Escherichia, Rhizobium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Thiobacillus, Streptococcus, Cyanobacteria

§ Fungi: Yeast (Sacchromyces, candida)

Mold (Penicillium, Aspergillus)

§ Virus: Lambda phage virus, Vaccinia virus, M13

§ Extremophiles (Archaeobacteria): Thermus aquaticus, Sulfolobus

Inoculums development programme

Anaerobic technique in microbiology

Culture preservation and management.

Representative genera of Gram positive, Gram negative and unusual bacteria.

 

Books Recommended:

1. Biology of Microorganisms- T.D. Brock et al.

2. Microbial Ecology; Fundamental and applications-Atlas R M and Bartha R.

3. Microbiology: an introduction- G.JTortora,Funke &Case

4. Microbiology: International edition- M.J Pelczar, E.C.S.Chan and N.R krieg

5. Jawetz E. J. et al. Review of medical microbiology:

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 115 and BTC 224.

Introduction: Brief history, enzymes as biological catalysts, classification, nomenclature, enzyme assay, specific activity, enzyme activity units.

Factors affecting the rate of enzymatic reactions: substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, pH, temperature, coenzyme and cofactor.

Enzyme kinetics: Monosubstrate reactions, Michaelis-Menten equation and its linear transformations, K_m, V_max: definition, determination and significance. Double reciprocal plot or Lineweaver-Burk equation, kinetics of enzymatic reactions having two or more substrates.

Enzyme inhibition: Reversible inhibition, competitive, non-competitive and uncompetitive inhibition. Irreversible inhibition, specific examples.

Identification of functional groups essential for catalysis, ribonuclease and chymotrypsin as specific examples.

Specificity of enzymes: absolute specificity, broad specificity, intermediate specificity, and stereospecificity.

Enzyme regulation: allosteric enzymes, cooperativity special characteristics, Monod and Koshland models, covalent modification of enzymes, specific examples (ATPase, phosphorylase, and dehydrogenase.

Mechanism of enzyme action: specific examples: Chymotrypsin, Lysozyme, Ribonuclease A, Carboxypeptidase.

Enzyme Technology: Application of enzymes in biotechnology; immobilized enzymes, methods of immobilization and their applications; utilization of enzymes in industry, enzymes as analytical reagents, biosensor.

1. Dixon, M. & E. C. Webb. 1979. Enzymes, 3^rd edition.

2. Lehninger, J. Principles of Biochemistry.

3. Rehm, H. J. & G. Reed,.Biotechnology, Vol. 7a. Enzyme Technology- Enzyme Structure and Mechanism, 2^nd edition-Fresht. VCH Germany.

4. Segal, I. H. Enzyme kinetics.

5. Walsh, C. 1979. Enzymatic Reaction Mechanism.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 226.

Introduction: General aspects of metabolism and experimental approaches to the study of metabolism, metabolic and energy transfer pathways, basic concept of the control of metabolism.

i) Glycolysis (the glycolysis pathway, aerobic and anaerobic fate, regulation of glycolytic pathway, physiological importance of aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis).

ii) Tricarboxylic acid cycle and its regulation.

iii) Pentose phosphate pathway, glyoxalate pathway and their regulation.

iv) Glycogen metabolism: Glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, and control of glycogen metabolism.

v) Biosynthesis of carbohydrate: Gluco-neogenesis, and its regulation, biosynthesis of dioligo and polysaccharides, glycoproteins, proteoglycan, sugar interconversions.

Lipid Metabolism: Degradation of triglycerides and phospholipids, oxidation of fatty acids, propionate metabolism, ketone bodies (formation and utilization), utilization of fatty acids for energy production, oxidation and functional role of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Protein Metabolism: Outline of metabolism of amino acids decarboxylation, oxidative deamination, transamination, urea cycle and toxicity of ammonia.

Biosynthetic Path Ways: One carbon metabolism or biosynthesis of fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated), cholesterol, B-carotene, triglycerides, steroid hormones, prostaglandins, prostacycline, thromboxane, phospholipids.

1. Lehninger, Albert, L., Nelson David, L., Cox, Michael, M., Principles of Biochemistry, 1^st Indian Edition, 1993. CBS Publisher’s and Distibutors.

2. Strayer, Lubert, 1988. Biochemistry, 3^rd Edition, Q. H. Freeman and company, NewYork.

3. Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes P. A. Rodwell, V. W. 1988. Harper’s Biochemistry. 22^nd edition, Prentice Hall International.

4. Conn, E. E., Stumpt, P. K., 1994, Outlines of Biochemistry, 4^th Edition, Wiley Eastem Limited, new age International Limited.

5. A.C. Dev. Fundamentals of Biochemistry.

Metabolism: Basic concept and design of metabolism control of carbohydrate metabolism.

Amino acid metabolism: Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids, oxidative degradation of amino acids to specialized products, amino acid biosynthesis, regulation of amino acid metabolism, metabolism of folic acid, glutathione, methylmalonate, clinical correlations: phenylketonuria, alkaptonuria, folic acid deficiency.

Nucleotide metabolism: Overview metabolic functions of nucleotide, synthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, formation of deoxyribonucleotides, regulation of nucleotides biosynthesis. nucleotide degradation, biosynthesis of nucleotide coenzyme, nucleotide metabolizing enzymes as a function of cell cycle and rate of cell division, antimetabolites of purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, orotic aciduria.

Mineral metabolism: Ca, Fe, Cu, Mg, I, Mn, Zn and metal toxicities (Hg, Pb, As, Cd).

Autotrophic CO₂ fixation: Mechanism of photosynthesis in green plant, sulphur to cyanobacteria, physiological groups of aerobic chemolithotroph.

1. Lehninger, Albert, L., Nelson David, L., Cox, Michael, M., Principles of Biochemistry, 1^st Indian Edition, 1993. CBS Publisher’s and Distibutors.

2. Strayer, Lubert, 1988. Biochemistry, 3^rd Edition, Q. H. Freeman and company, NewYork.

1. Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes P. A. Rodwell, V. W. 1988. Harper’s Biochemistry. 22^nd edition, Prentice Hall International.

2. Conn, E. E., Stumpt, P. K., 1994, Outlines of Biochemistry, 4^th Edition, Wiley Eastem Limited, new age International Limited.

3. A.C. Dev, Fundamentals of Biochemistry.

 

Introduction: Definition of plant breeding, nature, history, objectives, significance & problems of plant breeding, the basis of crop improvement, some important achievements and future prospects of plant breeding, national& international institutes engaged in crop improvement and their nature of work.

Origin & Domestication of crops: Centres of origin of crop plants, important of this concept in plant breeding, domestication of crops and changes under domestication.

Reproduction Biology & Plant Breeding: Relevance of mode of reproduction to plant breeding, modes & methods of reproduction, modes of pollination, antithesis, pollination mechanism in relation to crop improvement and genetic significance of pollination control/method. Self-incompatibility & male sterility and their significance in plant breeding.

Embryology: Definition, study of microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis , megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis, fertilization, and development of embryo.

Qualitative and Quantitative characteristics and their Inheritance Pattern: Poligenic inheritance and continuous variation, multiple factor hypothesis, pleotrophy, penetrance and expressively, concept of yield and yield contributing characters of some important crops.

General methods of crop improvement: Plant introduction and acclimatization, selection –pure line, mass, pedigree, recurrent, single seed descent & colonel selection, hybridization, ploidy, mutation breeding and merits & demerits.

Hybridization: Definition, objective, types, prerequisites, advantage & disadvantages of hybridization, Techniques of artificial hybridization –bulk, selfing & crossing techniques, ,Techniques in field trials.

Heterosis Breeding: Types, estimation, history, theories of heterosis, heterosis in self and cross-pollinated crops and its application, genetical basis of heterosis.

Methods of breeding: Self-pollinated [rice, wheat], Cross pollinated [maize] and Asexually propagated crops e.g. potato, sugarcane. Breeding of high yielding varieties [HYV].

Inbreeding depression: Hybrid vigor and inbreeding depression, genetical basis of inbreeding depression, degree of inbreeding depression, out breeding, crossbreeding, practical application of inbreeding.

Mutation breeding: Artificial mutations in plants, use of induced techniques in crop improvement, limitation of mutation breeding.

Back-cross breeding: Method, merits & limitations of back-cross breeding.

Plant genetic resources (PGR): Definition & classification, biodiversity & genetic diversity & its significance, genetic erosion, causes of genetic erosion, possible dangers from genetic erosion.

4. Allard, R. W. 1999. Principles of Plant Breeding. John Willey & Sons. New York.

5. Chopra, V. l. 1989. Plant Breeding. Oxford and IBH publishing Com. Ltd. New Dilhi.

6. Dana, S. 2001. Plant Breeding. Naya Udyog. Calcatta.

7. Singh. B. D. 1995. Plant Breeding – Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers. New Dilhi.

Laboratory works based on BTC 230

Animal reproduction: Definition, types, factors responsible for reproduction, fundamental characteristics, sexual behaviour in male and female patterns, female and male reproduction system of farm animals, sources and function of hormone in reproduction. Gamatogenesis, fertilization, cleavage, gastrulaion, placentation. germinal layer, extra embryonic membrane, oestrous cycle, menopause, hormonal regulation of menstrual cycle and pregnancy, parturition and birth control.

Animal Breeding: Concepts, development and applications of animal breeding, breeds and breed structure, design of breeding, hybrids of cattle, sheep, goat, and poultry. Principles of animal breeding-selection, methods of selection, variation, traits for selection, breeding efficiency breeding plans for cattle in developing countries. System of breeding-inbreeding, out breeding, top crossing, grading, cross breeding, criss-crossing, triple crossing system. Artificial insemination, factors influencing cattle fertility. Artificial control of oestrous, ovulation and pregnancy diagnosis of cattle. Gestation- developmental stages of ovum, embryo and foetus, changes in uterus and its contents and mammary gland during pregnancy. Animal products from advanced animal breeding methods.

1. Balinsky, B.I. 1981. An Introduction to Embryology, 5^th ed. W. B. Sunders Co. West Washington Square, Philadelphia.

2. Bodemer, C.W.1968.Modern Embryology, Holt, Reinhart Winston Inc. NY. Chicago.

3. Enerjee, G.C.1987.A text Book of Animal Husbandry, 6^th ed. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. NY. Delhi, Calcutta & Mumbai.

4. Dalton, D. C. 1987. An Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding. English Language Book Society Collins.

5. Gordon, I.(1983). Controlled Breeding in Farm Animals. Paragon Press, Oxford, NY & Sydney.

6. Hafez, E.S.E. (1987).Reproduction in Farm Animals, 5^th ed. Lea & Febigar, Philadelphia.

Laboratory works based on BTC 232.

Ecology and ecosystem, the ocean and fresh waters ecosystem, microbial community studies, dynamics of Ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles

Biodeterioration of materials: basic concepts and factors, biodeterioration of leather, wool, fur, feather, stones, plastics and rubber, bioplastic, control of biodeterioration: physical, chemical and biological methods

Xenobiotics in the environment: persistence and biomagnification. Xenobiotic degrading bacteria and their catabolic genes in bioremediation; In situ analysis of microbial community and activity in bioremediation, DNA based methods; RNA based methods; genetic fingerprinting technique.

Approaches to bioremediation: environmental modification for bioremediation, microbial seeding and bioengineering approaches. Biodegradation of recalcitrant industrial wastes: structure-recalcitrance relationship, factors affecting microorganisms to degrade xenobiotics. Biodegradation and metabolism of pesticides, aromatic compounds, phenols, organic dyes, synthetic organic chemicals

Books Recommended:

1.Microbial Ecology; Atlas RM and Bartha R.

2.Current prospects in microbial ecology; Klung and Reddy

3.Introduction to environmental Microbiology: R.Mitchell

4.Microbial Biotechnology; Glazer AN & Nikaido H

5.Waste water Microbiology;2^nd edition. Wiley GB

6.Biotreatment systems: vol.2, Wise DL

7.Molecular approaches to Environmental Microbiology; Pickup RW and Saunders IJR

8.Ecological systems and the environment; I. Foin

9,Microbial ecology; Aconceptual Approach- J.M. Lynch and Poole.

 

Introduction: Soil fertility, sources of nitrogen, N₂ –cycle, forms of soil nitrogen, amount of nitrogen-fixed, factors affecting nitrogen fixation.

Nitrogen Fixation: Methods, discharge of electricity, activity of symbionts, activity of free fixers, manufacture of synthetic nitrogen, Interactions of O₂ with N₂ –fixation, supplies of electrons, energy requirement for N₂ –fixation, Mechanism of penetration and nodule formation in roots by Rhizobium, factors affecting nodule formation, function of the nodule. Measurement of N₂ –fixation, assimilation of fixed nitrogen.

Nitrogenase: Nature and mode of action and mechanism of nitrogen fixation.

The Nif genes: Nif ⁺ and Nif ^-, genetics of Nif in Klebsiella pneumoniae, structure and regulation of Nif genes in K. pneumoniae, Rhizobium and Anabaena.

Production of Biofertilizer: Physiology and function of Rhizobium, Azobacter, Azospirillium, Frankia and Mycorrhizae. Inoculum production and inoculation techniques for production of biofertilizer, crop response to biofertilizer producing microorganisms, mass production of biofertilizer, quality control, agronomic importance.

Blue Green Algae (BGA): Nitrogen transformations in a low land rice ecosystem, heteroysts-modes of nitrogen fixation in BGA, isolation of BGA, agroclimatic variations, algalization-mass cultivation, manipulation of BGA in the rice field and effect of inoculation on the yield of rice.

Discussion on: Azolla, green manure, algae and soil reclamation, organic matter composting and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms.

1. Gray Stacey, Robert H. Burris and Harold J. Evans (1997). Biological Nitrogen Fixation. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, India.

2. Postagate J. R. (1982). The Fundamentals of Nitrogen Fixation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge CB 21RP.

3. Rao, N. S. S. 1996. Biofertilizer in Agriculture and Forestry. Oxford & IBM Pvt. Ltd. India.

 

1. Isolation, characterization and identification of the following microorganisms: Rhizobium, Azobacter, Azospirillium, Frankia, Mycorrhizae and BGA.

2. Nodulation experiment.

3. Study on algalization technique.

4. Study on Azolla.

5. Organic matter composting process.

3 Hours/Week, 3 Credits

Introduction: History, concept, totipotency, importance, prospects, possibilities and limitations of plant cell and tissue culture.

Laboratory Organization: Laboratory design, aseptic techniques, nutrition of plant cell, media components, composition & preparation, media selection, solidification and maintenance of media.

Explant: Selection, collection and preparation of explants.

Plant Tissue Culture Methods: Callus and suspension culture, batch and continuous culture. Callus induction and maintenance. Transfer of cultures and subcultures. Storage of cultured cells. Initiation and establishment of embryogenic suspention cultures.

Growth of Cell and Tissue: Condition of cell growth, growth process, factors affecting cultured cell growth, growth measurement method, chemical, biochemical and biological trouble shooting during the tissue culture.

Plant Regeneration: Tissue differentiation, cytodifferantation, organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis.

Micropropagation: Direct and indirect methods of micropropagation in different groups of plants. Clonal propagation of elite germplasm, shy rooters, recalcitrant and endangered species, micrografting, endogenous hormones.

Production of disease free plant through tissue culture: Virus and pathogen elimination, eradication, production of disease resistant and stress tolerant strain through tissue culture, limitations.

Industrial Application of Plant Tissue Culture: Secondary plant products (metabolites) and their application, techniques of selecting cell line for high production of secondary metabolites, mass culture, scaling-up, immobilization, purification of the cultured products, limiting factors.

In vitro Germplasm Conservation: Material, methods and factors affecting germplasm conservation, maintenance of freeze culture, revival of frozen cell, future prospect.

1. Bhojwani, S. S. 1990. Plant Tissue Culture. Elsivier, Oxpord, NY.

2. Dixon, R. A. 1985. Plant Cell Culture. IRL Press, Washington DC.

3. Dixon, R. A. 1985. Plant Cell Culture: A Practical Approach. IRL Press, Washington DC.

4. Ramawat, K. G. 2003. Plant Biotechnology. S. Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi.

5. Razdan, M. K. 1994. An Introduction to Plant Tissue Culture. Tata McGraw-Hill pub., New Delhi.

Laboratory works based on BTC 321.

Introduction: Definition, scope, importance of fermentation technology, major areas of fermentation technology.

Media Formulation and Sterilization Process: Media composition, types, factors influencing media formulation, mechanism of sterilization, of media, killing kinetics, determination of lethal effect and lethal units.

Inocula Preparation and Development: Criteria used for inocula preparation, different processes of preparation, bacterial and fungal inocula preparation and development.

Fermentation kinetics: rate equation for cell growth, substrate utilization, products formulation,

Classification of Fermentation Process: Batch, fed-batch and continuous fermentation process, advantages and disadvantages of these process.

Recovery and Purification of fermentation Products: Methods of recovery and purification.

Types and Configuration of Fementers: Different fermentation design, types of fermenters, factors influencing fermenter design.

Instrumentation and Control: Control system, types of control, air flow monitoring, measurement of power input and temperature, foam and pH control.

1. Fermentation: a practical approach-B. MacNeil & Harvey, IRL Press, Oxford

2. Principle of Fermentation Technology-P.F. Stanbury & Whitaker.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 323.

Centrifugation techniques: principle of sedimentation, centrifuges and their use, density gradient centrifugation and ultracentrifuge.

Chromatographic techniques: principle of chromatography; column, thin-layer and paper chromatography; adsorption, gas liquid, ion-exchange, exclusion, affinity and high performance liquid chromatography.

Electrophoretic techniques: principle; factors affecting electrophoresis; gel electrophoresis; SDS-PAGE; isoelectric focusing; isotechnophoresis and preperative electrophoresis.

Radioisotope techniques: nature, detection and measurement of radioactivity; application of radioisotopes in the biological sciences; safety aspects of the use of radioisotopes.

Recombination models: Rec system, conjugation, transduction, transfection and transformation.

Molecular methods for structure determination: Ultraviolet (UV), Infra-red (IR), Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Electron spin resonance (ESR) and mass spectroscopy.

1. Comprehensive Biotechnology, vol. 2: Murray Moo-Young.

2. A Biologist’s Guide to Principles and techniques of practical biochemistry, 3^rd edition: K. Wilson & K. H. Goulding.

3. Basic biochemical methods, 2^nd edition: R. R. Alexander & J. M. Griffiths.

4. An introduction to Practical Biochemistry, 2^nd edition: D. T. Plummer.

5. Practical Skills in Biomolecular Sciences: Rob Reed, David Holmes, Jonathan.

6. Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry: Williums and Flemming, 1980.

7. Techniques in Molecular Biology: Walker, 1987.

8. Short Protocols in Molecular Biology: Ausubel, 1995.

Bioenergetics: High energy compounds, the ATP cycle, structure, occurrence and properties of ATP, ADP and AMP, ATP transfer of phosphate group, ATP as the source of energy, the role of ATP and pyrophosphate, and other high energy compounds.

ATP synthesis: Coupling with respiratory electron flow, the chemiosmotic model, mitochondrial oxidation of cytosolic NADH, energetics of electron transport, uncoupling and inhibition of electron transport regulation of oxidative phosphorylation.

Mitochondria: Structure, enzyme localization, mitochondrial electron flow, electron carriers, uncouples and inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation.

Structure and function of chlorophyll, photosynthesis (Calvin cycle, dark and light reaction, photophosphorylation and electron transport chain).

1. Lehninger, Albert, L., Nelson David, L., Cox, Michael, M., Principles of Biochemistry, 1^st Indian Edition, 1993. CBS Publisher’s and Distibutors.

2. Strayer, Lubert, 1988. Biochemistry, 3^rd Edition, Q. H. Freeman and company, NewYork.

3. Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes P. A. Rodwell, V. W. 1988. Harper’s Biochemistry. 22^nd edition, Prentice Hall International.

4. Conn, E. E., Stumpt, P. K., 1994, Outlines of Biochemistry, 4^th Edition, Wiley Eastem Limited, new age International Limited.

 

Introduction: The evolution of microbial genetics, early concepts of bacterial variation; adaptation, mutation and selection; dominance and recessiveness of characters, difference with eucaryotic genetics.

Regulation of Gene: General aspects of gene regulation, control during transcription and translation, control of gene expression in prokaryotes, operon systems.

Genetics of bacteria: Bacterial conjugation, transformation, transduction, chromosomal transfer; interrupted mating experiments.

Plasmids: Types, transfer, replication, detection and construction of recombinant plasmid vectors.

Genetics of Fungi: Special study of Yeast genetics.

Genetics of Viruses: Genetics of bacteriophage; cosmid and phagemid vectors.

Books Recommended:

1. Snusted,D.P.Simmons,M.J. and Jenkins,J.B. Principles of genetics

2. Genetics: M.W Strickberger.

3. Gene VIII: B.Lewin

4. Gene Cloning:T.A. Brown.

 

Introduction: Brief history, nomenclature and classification, virion structure.

Pathogenesis of viral diseases: specific examples: Influenza, EBV, Hepatitis B, HIV, Tumor viruses.

Cellular oncogenes and oncogenic viruses. Use of retroviruses as a vector for gene therapy and genetic engineering.

Virus replication: Replication and gene expression of DNA and RNA viruses.

Bacteriophages: Genome organization and replication of DNA and RNA bacteriophages.

1. Brock, T.D. Biology of Microorganisms.

2. Fields. Virology:, Volume I & I I . 3^rd edn.

3. Fields. Fundamentals of Virology:

4. Jawetz E. J. et al. Review of medical microbiology:

Laboratory works based on BTC 328.

Introduction: Importance and development of bioprocess technology; upstream and down stream processing.

Methods for Biocatalysis and Biotransformations: concepts and general features of biotransformation; reactions in solvent mixtures; Equipments, standardization, quality control and quality assurance; Optimization procedures; examples of typical bioconversion procedures.

Scale up of Microbial Processes: Criteria used for scale up; factors considering in microbial processes; physical/chemical/biological.

Processing of Food and Feed: Raw materials, microorganisms, procedures, food value and economic importance of tofu. dahi, tempeh, curd, animal and poultry feed, SCP and MBP.

Biocomposting Processes: Introduction; composting processes; succession of microorganisms; applications.

Biopharmaceuticales: Genes for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, Antibiotic production and its modification; metabolic engineering of antibiotic biosynthesis pathway.

Biotransformation of Steroids.

1.Biotechnology 2^nd edition.vol.3. Bioprocessing Rehm H-j & Reed G.

2.Hand book of indigenous fermented foods. K.H Steinkraus.

3. Food, feed and fuel from biomass; Chahal DS.

4. Biotechnology and renewable energy,Moo-Young M. Biotechnology of industrial antibiotics. Vandamme E.J.

5. Prescott and Dunn’s industrial microbiology-G-Reed.

Introduction: Sources of energy, types of energy.

Biomass: Sources of biomass, composition of biomass, terrestrial and aquatic biomass, formation of biomass.

Solar Energy: Photosynthesis, solar energy as a fuel replacement, production of hydrocarbon from plants.

Biomass as Fuel Energy: Methods of biomass for energy, different types of fuels, biomass fuel fields, Hydrolysis, municipal solid waste.

Biomass Conversion: Non-biological process and biological process.

Gaseous Fuel: Biogas and Hydrogen, Procedure for biogas making and its utility, production of Hydrogen from biomass.

Liquid Fuel: Alcohol- ethanol production from biomass, future prospects of industrial alcohol.

Books Recommended:

1. Carl. W. Hall, (1981).Biomass as an Alternative Fuel. Govt. Institutes, Inc. USA.

2. Klass, Donald E., Emert, George 11, 1981.Fuels from Biomass and Waste. Ann Arbor Science Pub. Ins. USA.

3. Mital, K. M. 1996.Biomass System-Principles and applications. New Age international (P) Ltd. India.

4. Dubey, R. C. 2004. A text Book of Biotechnology. S. Chand & Co. Ltd. New Delhi-110055

1. Environmental pollution: Origin and monitoring of different types of pollution, chemical and biological pollution indicators, assessment and analytical tools

2 Physical, chemical and biological treatment of waste-water and industrial toxic effluent

3. Utilization of renewable resources to energy and chemicals

4. Development and optimization of membrane bioreactor process for use in sewage treatment

5. Bio-leaching and bio-mining

6. Application of biosensors for the detection of environmental pollutants

7. Isolation and enrichment of microorganisms capable of detoxifying environmental pollutants.

8. Recent advances in culture able and non-culturable approaches for the detection of pathogens in potable and polluted water

9. Novel biotechnological approaches in waste treatment: genetic manipulation, enzyme and specialized bacteria

10. Microorganisms and metal pollutants: Sources of metals, metal bioavailability in the environment; mechanisms of microbial metal resistance and detoxification; effect of metal microbes interaction.

11. Pollution control biotechnology: use of commercial blends of microorganisms and enzymes in pollution control; immobilized cell in the waste water treatment; Potential application of recombinant DNA technology in waste treatment.

12. Adaptation and interactions of microorganisms in the extreme environments.

1. Microbial Ecology; Atlas RMA and Bartha R.

2.Current prospects in microbial ecology; Klung and Reddy

3.Introduction to environmental Microbiology: R. Mitchell

4.Microbial Biotechnology; Glazer AN & Nikaido H

5.Waste water Microbiology;2^nd edition. Wiley GB

6.Biotreatment systems: vol.2, Wise DL

7.Molecular approaches to Environmental Microbiology; Pickup RW and Saunders IJR

8.Ecological systems and the environment; I. Foin

9,Microbial ecology; Aconceptual Approach- J.M. Lynch and Poole.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 332.

Introduction: Microorganisms (molds yeasts, bacteria) important in food biotechnology, major biotech food products.

Biotechnology in Milk and Milk Products: Composition and food value of milk. adulteration of milk. Pasteurisation of milk. Definition, composition and manufacture of Butter and butter products. Definition, classification, manufacturing and processing of different types of domestic and foreign cheese. Composition and manufacturing process of condensed and powder milk.

Biotechnology in Fermented Dairy Products and Dairy Based Products: Starter culture, dhahi, yogurt, cultured butter milk, acidophilus milk and kefir. Classification of ice-cream, manufacturing, hardening and storage of ice-cream.

Fermentation Technology in Food: Industrial enzymes used for fermentation of food, production process of beer, wine, brandy, distilled breverages, alcoholic breverages (whiskey, scotch, grain, neutral sprit, vodka, gin, rum), carbonated breverages, amino acids, vitamins and single cell protein.

Biotechnology in Fruit Processing: Preperation of squash from fruit, juice, non alcoholic fruit drinks, sour kraut, pickles, jam, jellies, and marmalades. Enzyme treatments and preservation of fruit products,

Baby Food: Production of baby food and cereal products.

Food Processing Technology: Food additives, packaging of food, storage, transportation, merchandising of various products with added value, food spoilage and food regulation, quality control of food processing.

1. Clusas, I. J. 1985. Fish Handling, Preservation and Processing in the tropics. Patr I and II.Tropical Development and Research Institute, London.

1. Brogstrom, G. (Editor). 1965. Fish as Food vol. I – IV. Academic Press London.

2. Govinda, T. K. 1985. Fish Processing Technology. Oxford and IBM Publishing Co. , New Dilhi.

3. Stansby, M. E. 1963. Industrial Fishery Technology. Rehinold Pub. Co. New York.

4. Tanikawa, E. 1985. Marine Products in Japan. Koseisha Koseikaku Co. Ltd.., Tokyo.

5. Wheaton, F. W. and Lawson, T. B. 1985. Processing of aquatic Food Products. Wiley Inter Science, New York.

 

Laboratory works based on BTC 334.

Introduction: History, types of animal cell culture, prospects and limitations of animal cell culture, animal cell culture technology in the 21^st century.

Laboratory Organization: Laboratory design, aseptic techniques, media preparation, incubation facilities.

Culture Media and Procedures: media components, composition & preparation, feeder layers and gas phase, Selection of medium and serum, cell nutrition, growth factors.

Primary Culture: Disaggregation of tissue and primary culture; monolayer cell growth system, evolution of cell lines, large scale cell culture, somatic cell fusion.

Culture of Specific Cell: Culture of epithelial cells, mesenchymal cells, neuroectodermal cells, hemopoietic cells, blood cell, bone marrow, insect cell, fish cell, and tumour tissue.

Specialized Technique and Maintenance: Mass culture of cell, hybridoma production technique, uses of hybridoma products, routine observation and maintenance of cloning and selection of specific cell type.

Quantification and experimental design: Selection of cell line, experimental design; growth phase, cell counting, preparation of samples for enzyme assay and immune assay, preparation of samples for extraction of DNA and RNA.

Isolation of Tissue and Primary Culture: Mouse embryo and hens embryo.

1. Butler, M. 1987. Animal Cell Technology- Principles and Practices, Oxford University Press,UK.

2. Butler, M. 1991. Mammalian Cell Biotechnology- A Practical Apprachh, IRL, Oxford.

3. Freshney, R. T. 1998. Culture of Animal Cells. John Willey and Sons, NY.

4. Purhit, S. S. and S. K. Mathur. 1996. Biotechnology. Argo’s Botanical Publishers, India.

Laboratory works based on BTC 336.

Introduction: Brief history, components of immune system, molecular and cellular basis of immune system.

Cells and organs involved in the immune response: Lymphocytes (T cells, B cells, NK cells), primary and secondary expansion of lymphocytes, mononuclear phagocytes, monocytes/macrophages, antigen presenting cells, polymorphs and mast cells; the primary and secondary lymphoid organs and tissues.

The humoral immune response: Antigen-antibody interactions, affinity and avidity; antibodies, classification, structure, function and mechanism of action; interferons and their functions.

The cell-mediated immune response: Recognition of antigen by T cells, antigen presentation, the major histocompatibility complexes or MHC molecules, the role of cytokines and the regulation of immune responses.